Some varieties of ancient cultural responses to tectonic activity

Some varieties of ancient cultural responses to tectonic activity[i]

Eric R. Force

Observing a remarkable spatial correspondence between loci of ancient complex cultures and the margins of tectonic plates[ii], I suggested in my 2015 book[iii] that active tectonism along such margins forced the pace of change in cultures along them, resulting in rapid cultural evolution.  Associated evidence came from varying the geometry and scale of spatial analysis, neutralizing the effects of requisite factors, comparing rates of change in active vs. quiescent environments, kinetic mapping of the propagation of complexity, and recording the dynamics as preserved in ancient literatures and architecture[iv].

This posting/paper examines the inherent differences in cultural responses to different types of tectonic activity.  The responses noted in my book were largely to seismic activity, as volcanism was absent in most of the areas I treated, and tsunami were not specifically addressed [v].  However, these other tectonic factors in cultural response are of importance, notably the western hemisphere and the western Pacific.  It is of interest and practical use to analyze the structure of typical cultural response types.[vi]

Seismic activity in the ancient world commonly led to both tenacity and resilience.  Damaged or destroyed settlements and ceremonial sites were generally rebuilt at the same location, despite location near active faults.  Earthquakes generally do not compromise the local bases of subsistence, and directions of avoidance were unclear in antiquity.   Thus sites favored for any reason[vii] were tenaciously rebuilt, but generally improved with new technology more resistant to damage, along with other changes demonstrating cultural resilience[viii].  These factors are those that eventually resulted in greater cultural complexity in comparison to coeval quiescent sites, where no such responses were needed.  The historic period also furnishes many examples of seismic activity forcing the pace of change, with both tenacity and resilience as responses[ix]. 

In comparison, the effect of volcanism commonly compromises the bases of subsistence in settlements freshly covered.  On the other hand, direction of avoidance is generally obvious, from flow margins and direction, and/or wind direction for ash plumes.  A common response is temporary abandonment[x], with migration to sites less impacted, or even benefitted[xi].  Where soil formation is rapid, abandonment may be relatively brief.  In-migration may not have the same cultural identity, however.  In antiquity, the cultural response to tectonic environments was not always toward complexity, as pertinent useful change was not obvious[xii].

Tsunami result from offshore earthquakes, volcanism, and sometimes submarine slides[xiii], so are indirect results of tectonic activity, most commonly quite local but in some cases projected onto quiescent environments across seaways[xiv]. A culture’s tsunami vulnerability along its coasts generally deprives it of the rich resources and trade potential there[xv].  Migration to adjacent uplands and headlands is a common response to new awareness of the danger[xvi]. Memories of this may be short-lived, but some ancient cultures went to some lengths to preserve awareness of tsunami via traditional narratives[xvii], and/or they structured society to minimize the danger[xviii].  Cultural change if any may be minimal, indeed in some ancient cases retrograde[xix]. 

I conclude that despite wide varieties in reportage of ancient earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami, we can see some differences based on literary, ethnographic, and archaeological records.  Tenacity tends to be a typical response to earthquakes, in some ways a default response due to apparent great dimensions of affected area and lack of obvious avoidance directions.   In contrast, avoidance directions are more apparent for volcanic events and tsunami.  For tsunami, abandonment can be long-lasting, whereas for volcanism, eventual return is a typical pattern once agriculture is again possible. Tsunami may not result in the long-term increase in cultural complexity seen for seismicity due to the loss of coastal resources.

To some extent, ancient responses to tectonic activity are preserved in the modern era, including the differences described above.  Indeed, the only important change is the modern knowledge of distribution of seismic and other risks of natural disaster—and the importance of maintaining strategic sites is clearly the greater factor in our world.  Others remain the same—and modern and ancient instincts are basically the same, being inherent to our species.  Thus understanding of ancient responses may be useful in our modern world, as they are unvarnished by recently added considerations.  In any case, unraveling the cultural responses to different types of tectonic activity is a step toward improved response, especially where more than one tectonic phenomenon is involved.

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Notes

[i] Proper references appear in my book, my numerous blog-posts, and my other publications.  Here I would like to acknowledge the most important authors that have influenced my conclusions, rather than presenting voluminous references.  Especially influential for this paper/post were my co-panelists at a 2016 Society for Applied Anthropology convention, namely Gina Barnes, Wayne Howell, Bruce McFadgen, Nick Roberts, John Clague, and Susanna Hoffman.  As always, I appreciate the advice of  Claudio Vita-Finzi, Manuel Berberian, the late Jelle de Boer, Chuck Adams, Bob Tilling, David Soren, George Davis, Emma Blake, and Jane Brandon Force.

[ii] Demonstrated probabilistically by comparing average distance between ancient complex cultures and on-land convergent or transcurrent plate boundary, as a fraction of available land area.

[iii] Force (2015) “ Impact of tectonic activity on ancient civilizations . . .” published by Lexington Books.

[iv]Respectively consisting of 1) spatial focus on continent-scale transects and culture-scale comparison of tectonism and ancient culture; 2) showing that requisite climates, soils, irrigation and transportation potential, etc. are insufficient controls of the distribution; 3) comparing rates of cultural turnover to tectonic environment; 4) mapping of trade-route propagation from senior complex cultures to active vs. quiescent nascent cultures, and 5) noting evolution of literature description of tectonic activity, and cultural response thereto, especially in Hebrew and Greek records. 

[v] I focused on the eastern hemisphere in all but one chapter.  Volcanism is a factor in the most complex ancient cultures there in only a few areas, e.g. central Italy.  Tsunami were not treated in any comprehensive way. 

[vi] Mass movements such as landslides, commonly triggered by seismic activity, can cause disasters also, sometimes via tsunami.

[vii] Ceremonial/religious sites were rebuilt especially tenaciously. 

[viii] Secondary effects of earthquakes include those modifying the land surface, such as changes in sedimentation rate modifying coastal morphology.  These may have important cultural consequences, perhaps best summarized by Bruce McFadgen and Manuel Berberian.

[ix] Andrew Robinson, Jelle de Boer, Kevin Rozario, and others.

[x] I note the work of Payson Sheets, Jelle de Boer, Richard Fisher, Mauro DiVito,  and Grant Heiken

[xi] Where volcanic ash cover is thin (the work of Mark Elson) or the composition inherently fertile (my own work in Italy).

[xii] Religious responses to volcanoes are commonly among the cultural responses in the historic period.  The work of Patricia Plunket and Gabriela Urunuela suggests these too have different structures from those to seismicity.  Volcano veneration and incantations etc. to avert volcanism continue into the modern period.

[xiii] Thucydides, Simon Winchester, Brian Atwater, and others.  Records of ancient tsunami are comparatively few in comparison to those of the historic and modern eras, but probably they were actually numerous—shown for example in the work of Gina Barnes.

[xiv] Such as the Nile delta (the work of Daniel Jean Stanley), or facing tectonic shores (Gina Barnes, Brian Atwater)

[xv] Especially Ruth Ludwin

[xvi] Wayne Howell and Bruce McFadgen.

[xvii] Wayne Howell. Oral traditions about tsunami continue into the modern era is some societies. 

[xviii] Gina Barnes and Bruce McFadgen

[xix] Especially Bruce McFadgen